Nanjing anti-African protests

The Nanjing Anti-African protests were mass demonstrations and riots against African students in Nanjing, China, which lasted from December 1988, to the following January.

Background

Animosity towards African students has been a recurring event since the early 1960s, when scholarships provided by the Chinese government allowed many students from 'China-friendly' African countries to study in Beijing. This policy was originally based on the idea of 'third world solidarity' and Mao's linking of the fight against 'western imperialism' with Marxist class war. Many of these African students were given larger educational grants than native Chinese students, and racial hostility towards the Africans was a regular occurrence. Most of these students returned to their home countries before reaching the end of their courses due to poor living conditions and the political uncertainties of the Mao era. From the mid-1970s, China allowed African students to study outside of Beijing.

As well as resentment about the larger stipends given to African students, hostility from Chinese students towards Africans also flared up when there was contact between African men and Chinese women. In an incident in Shanghai in 1979, African students were attacked after playing loud music and annoying Chinese women. These clashes became more common during the 1980s and sometimes led to arrests and deportations of African students. Cultural differences in dating habits added to the tensions - whereas Chinese students were expected to know each other for some time before dating, African students may directly asking strangers to date."

Nanjing protests

On December 24, 1988 two male African students were entering their campus at Hehai University in Nanjing with two Chinese women. The occasion was a Christmas Eve party. A quarrel about correct identification between one of the Africans and a Chinese security guard, who had ordered the Africans to register their guests, led to a brawl between the African and Chinese students on the campus which lasted till the morning, leaving 13 students injured. 300 Chinese students, spurred by false rumors that a Chinese man had been killed by the Africans, broke into and set about destroying the Africans' dormitories, shouting slogans such as "Kill the black devils!" After the police had dispersed the Chinese students, many Africans fled to the railway station in order to gain safety at various African embassies in Beijing. The authorities prevented the Africans from boarding the trains so as to question those involved in the brawl. Soon their numbers increased to 140, as other African and non-African foreign students, fearing violence, arrived at the station asking to be allowed to go to Beijing.

By this time, Chinese students from Hehai University had joined up with students from other Nanjing universities to make up a 3000 strong demonstration which called on government officials to prosecute the African students and reform the system which gave foreigners more rights than the Chinese. On the evening of 26 December, the marchers converged on the railway station while holding banners calling for human rights and political reform. Chinese police managed to isolate the non-Chinese students from the marchers and moved them to a military guest house outside Nanjing. The demonstrations were declared illegal, and riot police were brought in from surrounding provinces to pacify the demonstrations which lasted several more days.

Aftermath

In January, three of the African students were deported for being suspected of starting the brawl. The other students returned to Hehai University and were required to follow new regulations, including a night-time curfew, having to report to university authorities before leaving the campus, and having no more than one Chinese girlfriend whose visits would be limited to the lounge area. Guests were still required to be registered.

Anti-African demonstrations spread to other cities, including Shanghai and Beijing. These were smaller than the Nanjing protests, though the Beijing protests were one of the currents which led to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.

Nanjing protests and Tiananmen Square protests

The course of the Nanjing protests went from anti-African sentiment to banners proclaiming Human Rights. The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 came 4 months after the anti-African protests in Nanjing and some elements of the Nanjing protests were still evident, such as banners proclaiming "No Offend Chinese Women" .

Nanjing 3.29 Movement

Nanjing 3.29 Movement was a movement to oppose the Cultural Revolution that happened in Nanjing, China in 1976.

Jiangnan DaYing

Jiangnan DaYing

Governor of Zhejiang province 2nd Wang Youling forced suicide)

Governor of Jiangsu province Xu Youren

Lieutenant General：Zhang YuLiang

Lieutenant General：Zhou Tengso

Lieutenant General：Wang Jung

Taiping Generals

Li Xiucheng, Lai Wenkwok, Tong Zonghai, Chen Yucheng, Yang Fuqing, Li Shixian, Liu Qeuling

Strength

The regular Army had only 180,000 soldiers while the Taiping Rebellion militia force had at least 560,000 soldiers.

Outcome

Taiping Rebellion forces occupied Jiangsu in 1860. The next year, they occupied Zhejiang. The Jiangnan DaYing was destroyed. The Second Opium War took place and Xianfeng Emperor died in 1861. The Xiang Army and Huai Army combined to become the Green Standard Army in 1862 and for the third time they surrounded and attacked Nanjing, successfully ending the civil war in July 1864.

Commentary

The Jiangnan DaYing had trouble making the payroll for its forces, and these forces were insufficient to fight off the British and French forces in northern China.

The leaders intrigue against each other： Xiang Rong　and Her Chyun in the first Jiangnan DaYing Her Chyun group, He Guiqing group and Zeng Guofan group dispute inner officials system, which allowed the Taiping Rebellion to gain momentum.

Her Chyun's ability to use Brigadier General‘s works but he belittled the Taiping Rebellion, He Guiqing's cowardice and Zeng Guofan' selfishness. the third reason for their loss.

Battle of Nanking

The Battle of Nanjing began after the fall of Shanghai in October 9, 1937, and ended with the fall of the capital city of Nanjing in December, 1937 to Japanese troops, a few days after the Republic of China Government had evacuated the city and relocated to Chongqing. The Nanking Massacre followed the fall of the city. The actual scene of this massacre is introduced in detail in the documentary film of the movie ''The Battle of China''.

Before Battle

General Tang Shengzhi was given the job of defending Nanjing following the retreat of the Chinese Army following the Battle of Shanghai. In a press release to foreign reporters, he announced the city would not surrender and would fight to the death. The defense force blocked roads, ruined boats, and burnt nearby villages, preventing many citizens from evacuating. However, the defense plan fell apart from the very beginning because the defenders were overwhelmed by Chinese troops fleeing from previous defeats such as the Battle of Shanghai, and these troops just wanted to escape to safer ground and refused to obey any orders. As Chiang Kai-shek and his staff such as Chen Cheng had realized, elite troops could not risk annihilation in a hopeless but symbolic defensive battle in the capital, so in order to preserve these forces for future battles, most of them were withdrawn. General Tang Shengzhi gathered about 100,000 soldiers, mostly untrained, including a few defeated troops from the Shanghai battlefield, to defend the capital. He also placed the 35th and 72nd divisions at the port to prevent people from fleeing Nanjing, as instructed by Chiang Kai-shek's general headquarters at Wuhan. However, the government left Nanking on December 1, and the president left on December 7. Nanjing was left to an International Committee led by John Rabe.

Battle

On December 9, after occupying the nearby countryside and demanding a surrender , the Japanese troops under Lt. Gen. Asaka Yasuhiko launched a massive assault on the city. Low morale, fleeing troops, and an overwhelming enemy caused the Chinese commanders to order a retreat across the Yangtze River by the evening of December 12. Many orders given during the battle contradicted those of headquarters, and many more orders were simply ignored. This complication, in addition to the inadequate preparatory measures made before the battle, gave little chance for Chinese soldiers to escape.

On December 13, the 6th and 114th Divisions of the first entered the city. Simultaneously, the 9th Division entered nearby Guanghua Gate, and the 16th Division entered and Taiping Gate. That same afternoon, two small fleets arrived on both sides of the Yangtze River. Nanking fell to the Japanese by nightfall.

In the following six weeks, the Japanese troops committed the Nanking Massacre.

Aftermath

Several cities, including Xuzhou and Wuhan soon fell after this battle. The government also tried to slow down the advancing Japanese by causing the 1938 Huang He flood, which covered three provinces.

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Battle of Nanking (1856)

First rout the Army Group Jiangnan (or the Jiangnan DaYing; ,The Qing government raised the Green Standard Army to fight against the Taiping Rebellion,but Qing twice military Strategy surrounded the Nanjing all iose at last.

First Jiangnan

1853--1856
When the Taiping Rebellion occupied Nanjing, after 10 days Xiang Rong commanded 10,000 Green Standard Army stationed themselves outside the Nanjing wall.

The forces holding Nanjing were stationed in Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum.

The Green Standard Army was led by First Class Senior General Xiang Rong, Second Class Senior General Her Chyun and Lieutenant General：Zhang GuoLiang. The leaters of the Taiping forces were Shi Dakai, Yang Xiuqing, Qin Rigang and Li Xiucheng.

The regular Army had 80,000 members and the Taiping Rebellion militia force had 460,000.

Outcome

On June 11856, the Nanjing army tried to stop Taiping forces but the Governor of Jiangsu Jeer Hungar, Mayor of Nanjing and 7,800 army were all killed.

The Qing army lost a battle later in the month and the remaining 36,000 retreated north. On August 9 Xiang Rong suicide by hang in Danyang.

Commentary

The Green Standard Army forces stationed in northern China defend UK and troops increased the Jiangnan DaYing less strength and money pay salary to soldiers, it was the first and important loss reason;

The leaders intrigued against each other, and this further hindered their cause.

Battle of Nanjing (1853)

Battle of Nanjing began after the fall of Wuhan in March 8, 1853, and ended with the fall of the capital city of Nanjing in March 19, 1853 to Taiping troops, a few days after the Qing Government had evacuated the city and set off the first Jiangnan DaYing after 10 days. The Taiping Rebellion changed Nanjing named to be the Tianjing deal a capital and beginning occupied 11 years till recovery by Xiang Army in June 19 1864 .

Nanjing no any wars before 206 years till this battle, terrible sad and giant shadow of war began over here.

When Taiping forces occupied Nanjing that forced 30,000 citizens join in and input to Jianbei's battlefield immediately, but 9000 citizens refused and jump to Yangtze River drowned from boats in half way where front line of Yangzhou, and Taiping forces occupied Yangzhou speedily but then Yangtze River flowed many bodys to sea that was terrible and cruel scene.

Treaty of Nanking

The Treaty of Nanking , signed 29 August, 1842, was the which marked the end of the First Opium War between the and Empires of 1839-42.

Conclusion of the Treaty

In the wake of China's defeat in the Opium War, representatives from the and Qing Empires negotiated a peace treaty aboard the British warship in Nanjing. On 29 August 1842, British representative Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives, Qiying, Ilibu and Niujian, signed the Treaty of Nanking. The treaty consisted of thirteen articles and was ratified by Queen Victoria and the Daoguang Emperor ten months later.

Terms

Foreign trading

The fundamental purpose of the treaty was to change the framework of foreign trade which had been in force since 1760. The treaty abolished the monopoly of the Thirteen Factories on foreign trade in Canton and instead five ports were opened for trade, , Amoy , Foochow , Ningpo and Shanghai , where Britons were to be allowed to trade with anyone they wished. Britain also gained the right to send consuls to the treaty ports, which were given the right to communicate directly with local Chinese officials . The treaty was the first in a series of treaties, often referred to as "Unequal Treaties", which China concluded with Western nations in the 19th century. The treaty stipulated that trade in the treaty ports should be subject to fixed tariffs, which were to be agreed upon between the British and the Qing governments .

Reparations and Demobilization

The was obliged to pay the British government 6 million silver dollars for the opium that had been confiscated by Lin Zexu in 1839 , 3 million dollars in compensation for debts that the Hong merchants in Canton owed British merchants , and a further 12 million dollars in for the cost of the war . The total sum of 21 million dollars was to be paid in installments over three years and the Qing government would be charged an annual interest rate of 5 per cent for the money that was not paid in a timely manner . This left a bitter taste in the mouth of the Qing government instilling a fierce hatred of the British among its population.

The Qing government undertook to release all British prisoners of war and to give a general amnesty to all Chinese subjects who had cooperated with the British during the war .

The British on their part, undertook to withdraw all of their troops from Nanjing and the Grand Canal after the emperor had given his assent to the treaty and the first installment of money had been received . British troops would remain in Gulangyu and Zhoushan until the Qing government had paid reparations in full .

Cession of Hong Kong

The Qing government agreed to cede the island of Hong Kong to the British Queen "in perpetuity" in order to provide British traders with a harbour where they could unload their goods . Pottinger was later appointed the first governor of Hong Kong.

Aftermath

Since the Treaty of Nanking was only a brief peace treaty with very general stipulations, the British and Chinese representatives agreed that a supplementary treaty be concluded in order to work out more detailed regulations for relations between the two empires. Consequently, on 3 October 1843, the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue was concluded at Bocca Tigris outside Canton.

Nevertheless, the treaties of 1842-3 left several unsettled issues. In particular it did not resolve the status of the opium trade with China, which was profitable for the British and devastating to the Chinese. Although the explicitly banned Americans from selling opium, the trade continued as both the British and American merchants were only subject to the legal control of their consuls. The opium trade was later legalized in the Treaties of Tianjin, which China concluded after the Second Opium War.

Legacy

Although the Treaty of Nanking in itself did not depart very far from contemporary in Europe, the treaty proved to be only the first in a series of treaties which China concluded with Western nations in the nineteenth century and would in due course be referred to as an "." The treaty created a new framework for China's foreign relations and overseas trade, which would last for almost a hundred years. Although China regained tariff autonomy in the 1920s, extraterritoriality was not formally abolished until 1943.

One of the most lasting legacies of the treaty was the crown colony of Hong Kong. In 1860, the colony was extended with the Kowloon peninsula and in 1898, the Convention of Peking further expanded the colony with the 99 year lease of the New territories. In 1984, the governments of the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China concluded the , under which the sovereignty of the leased territories, together with Hong Kong Island and ceded under the Convention of Peking , was to the PRC on July 1, 1997.

Tianjing Incident

The Tianjing Incident occurred from September 2 1856 - October 1856 in Nanjing. more than 27,000 people were killed because the Taiping Rebellion burn inner struggle Incident between leaders took powers each other.

Reasons

Raised the Taiping from 1851 that included 2 serious problem and inner conflicts： Guangdong v.s. Guangxi, strategy West v.s. strategy North.

Defeated the Jiangnan DaYing, made Yang Xiuqing pride and call himself was the Yahweh's Dowsing, greater than the Jesus's Dowsing Hong Xiuquan, it made Hong angry to Yang.

General Qin Rigang thought himself was the first merit in this victory, not all belong to Yang Xiuqing at least.

Wei Changhui dislike Yang long time ago, add Qing's governor Jeer Hungar sacrifice induced the giant conflict between attack Beijing V.S. stationary Nanjing inner the Taiping Rebellion, Yang Xiuqing belong to Nanjing, but Qin and Wei belong to attack toward north.

Process

Chen Chenjohn: Key man

Chen Chenjohn was famous general Chen Yucheng's uncle, Hong Xiuquan's secretary but also Yang Xiuqing trust him friendly, It is Chen made Hong believed that Yang will killed Hong that increased the Hong started attacked Yang early by Qing and Wei.

Hong's fear:Yang Order troops out off Nanjing

Murder:Early morning September 2

Chen Chenjohn invited Yang and Qing, Wei drunk the Whisky in Chen's home together, Yang believe Chen and only led 10 bodyguards to attend this party but that was a fatal mistake：Chen sold out Yang. Chen hidden Qin's 100 soldiers on Chen's home, they drunk till 2 o'clock morning, some dancers play amused them, half of dancing that Qing fall down his liquid's cup that signed: one of dancers took sword sting out Yang's lung,

Yand said at last

Wei cold smiled and reply

Enemy Zeng Guofan known this incident, uglify them declare:Wei boiled Yand body and ate.

God will appears:cheat 20,000 believers

Wei Changhui's group combined general Qin Rigang killed Yang Xiuqing's group 20000 people, next killed Shi Dakai's group and family, Shi escapted early and led troops 250,000 come back and prepared to attack Nanjing, forced Hong Xiuquan kill Wei and Qin, Chen Chenjohn, Chen Chenjohn's death was instead of Hong because Shi angry to Hong's unwise and ask Hong.

but Shi led troops back was wrong, it made Taiping Rebellion losed western lines and a lots of areas.

Bodys flew

Many bodys clothes yellow robe and tied by rope down with current from QinWhy River to Yangtze River, Nanjing oudside's Qing officials guessed struggle Incident must happened in Nanjing and guessed was true unluckily.

Negative effects

*Lose Wuhan forever：General Wei June was Wei Changhui's brotrhe's son, he commanded Taiping troops that stationary and defended Wuhan very bravely. When he known Wei Changhui was arrested, he gave up the Wuhan and run away in december 1856. soon, he surrender to Qing government.

*Shi Dakai leave：

*Xiang Army growth：Zeng Guofan then on the warship was surrounded in middle of Lake Poyang by Taiping troops, he was hopeless and prepared to suicide by jump lake all Taiping troops in Lake Poyang were retreated and Zeng could alive because Tianjing's struggle Incident happened.

*Never main attack toward north：

*Hong's dictator more foolish to destroyed：Hong only trust his elder brothers after Tianjing's struggle Incident but his brothers only like money, so if want to report before should bribe Hong's brother. Ex: they thought Li Xiucheng was victories often if he leaved Nanjing so they should took some bribe from Li exchanged their promised to set Li outside, but it made Taiping troops losed idealism and discipline even robbery by troops.

Third Battle of Nanking

The Third Battle of Nanking was the last major engagement of the Taiping Rebellion, occurring in 1864 after the death of the king of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Hong Xiuquan. There were probably more than a million troops in the battle and the Taiping army sustained 100,000 dead in the three day clash. Following the defeat of the Taiping army the troops, commanded by Zeng Guofan, slaughtered much of the city's population. Nanking had been the capital of the Heavenly Kingdom and was known by the Taipings as Tianjing . This battle was the effective end of the Taiping army and the last major Taiping city to fall back under Imperial control.

Prelude

In June, 1863, Imperial Chinese army General Bao Chao took Jiufu Island and the Taiping Army had lost the control of the entire northern shore of the Yangtze River, and Imperial general Bao Chao subsequently led his force across the Yangtze River and camped on the southern bank of Yangtze River outside the Shence Gate of Nanking. In September, 1863, Zeng Guofan's younger brother, a general of Imperial Army, General Zeng Guoquan led his force attacked and took Upward Bridge region to the southeast of the city and Eastern Riverine Bridge region to the southwest of the city. General Zeng Guoquan continued his quest of suburbs of Nanking and by early November, 1863, and he succeeded in taking regions including Upward Gate , High Bridge Gate , Twin Bridge Gate , Seventh Bridge Jar , Muling Pass, and Central Peace Bridge . Taiping Army therefore lost all of its positions in the southwestern part of Purple Gold Mountain. By mid November, regions including Chunhua , Jiexi , Longdu , Hushu , Tree Branches Town fell under Imperial Chinese army's control. At the same time, the Imperial navy commanded by Imperial admiral Peng Yulin and his deputy, Yang Yuebin took important regions including Gaochun and Eastern Dam with the help of Imperial General Bao Chao 's forces. By late November, Taiping garrison at Lishui surrendered to Imperial Chinese army. As a result, Taiping army was evicted from the vast region within 50 miles of Nanking. On November 25, 1863, General Zeng Guoquan and his subordinate, general Xiao Qingyan deployed troops at Piety Tomb . The only links to the outside left were the Shengce Gate and Taiping Gate.

On December 20, 1863, Li Xiucheng returned to Nanking from Danyang and urged Hong Xiuquan to abandon the Taiping capital on the very next day. However, suggestion was not accepted by Hong Xiuquan, who took the overall command of the operation. Hong declared that anyone who disobeys him and God would be immediately executed. These foolish acts of Hong not only doomed the Taiping army and Nanking, but also created wide spread discontent, and coupled with other factors, eventually, over 200,000 Taiping troops went out of Nanking and surrendered to the Imperial Chinese army during the entire course of the battle. For those who refused to surrender but was also upset by Hong's foolish acts, they chose to break out while they still could, when the siege was still incomplete. Hong, Li and others were unable to stop such acts. On February 28, 1864, Tianbao Castle at the highest peak of Purple Gold Mountain fell under the imperial Chinese army's control. On March 2, 1864, Imperial general Zeng Guoquan deployed his troops to Shengce Gate and Taiping Gate, the siege of Nanking was completed.

The Battle

On March 14, 1864, Imperial general Zeng Guoquan attempted his first attack on Nanking using ladders, but this first attempt was beaten back by the defenders. The imperial army then changed tactic by digging a total of ten underground tunnels at Chaoyang , Shence , and Jinchuan Gates, and the defenders in turn, countered with digging tunnels of their own and building a secondary wall behind the first. Five days after the death of Hong Xiuquan on June 1, 1864, Li Xiucheng was finally put in charge of all military and political affairs, but this was too late already, the fate of the city and its defenders were sealed.

On July 3, 1864, Dibao Castle on Purple Gold Mountain fell into Imperial Chinese army's hands. This strategic location enabled the Imperial Chinese army to build several dozen artillery positions to bombards the entire city, thus suppressing the defenders' firepower and providing cover for other preparations to take the city. One tactic of the attackers was to fill the space between the city wall and the mountain ridge at the Dragon's Neck with earth, sand, logs, rocks and grass, so the land surface was raised to the height of city wall, thus paving the way of attacking the city. Another tactic was to dig underground tunnel just 200 feet away from the city wall so that they could be filled with explosives to blow up the wall. Operations with such close proximity of the enemy fire was able to continue due to the sufficient covering fire, thanks to the taking of Dibao Castle. Defenders's attempt to disrupt the preparation was continuous beaten back with heavy loss due to heavy fire from attackers. Half a month later, the preparation was complete.

Realizing the final attack was coming, at the night of July 18, 1864, Li Xiucheng ordered more than a thousand defenders to disguise themselves as attackers to sneak out the city to destroy the tunnel, but the attackers were not fooled and successfully beaten back the thousand men formation. Next afternoon 13：00, the attackers detonated the explosives in the tunnel under Taiping Gate, the wall breaking fly 2--10 km far down, press several hundreds people die, and collapsed a large section of city wall. The defenders put a fierce fight, but was unable to drive back the attackers 60,000. The attackers were divided into four fronts after entering Nanking as previously planned:
*The central front led by imperial general Li Chenden attacked toward Hong Xiuquan's palace
*The right front led by imperial general 刘连捷 pushed toward Shence gate to link up with imperial general Zhu Nangui 's force who entered the gate via ladders, and after two teams had joined forces, they would attack westward toward Lion Mountain to take Yifeng Gate.
*The central-left front led by imperial general Peng Yuju attacked toward Tongji Gate.
*The left front led by imperial general Xiao Fusi attacked toward Chaoyang and Hongwu gates.
The street fight was fierce and bloody and the resistance was much tougher than expected and attackers' artillery cover had to stop for fearing injuring their own. Defenders were very stubborn and expected to inflicted heavy casualties on attackers and hoped to drive the attackers back outside the city.

After the fall of Chaoyang Gate, the defenders' morale collapsed and imperial general Luo Fengyan was able to lead his force to break into the city from Jubao Gate，while imperial general Li Jinzhou was able to break into the city from Gate, linking up with forces led by imperial general Peng Yuju . At the same time, Imperial admiral Huang Yisheng lead the imperial navy took Zhongguan and then took remaining fortresses still in the defenders' hands at the river banks, and helped imperial general Chen Ti take two Shuixi and Hanxi gates. By the evening, every gate of the city was firmly in the hands of attackers.

Li Xiucheng immediately returned to Hong Xiuquan's palace after the defeat at the Taiping Gate in the morning, and took Hong Xiuquan's son with him to escape via Hanxi gate. However, Li' force of several thousands were beaten back with heavy loss by the imperial general Chen Ti force and was forced to go to Cool Mountain . At night, Li Xiucheng's remaining force of a thousand went to Taiping Gate and disguised themselves as Imperial Chinese Army forces, and successfully escaped toward Piety Tomb via the section of collapsed city wall because the imperial Chinese army troops were busy looting, and did not bother to stop them. After massive looting, the city was set on fire which lasted till July 26, 1864.

Aftermath

Li Xiucheng did not get far after his initial breakout. Imperial general Zeng Guoquan sent out a cavalry force of 700 after his force and Li lost contact with Hong Xiuquan's son. Most of Taiping army's commanders failed to escape: Lie King Li Wangcai was captured on July 21, 1864 at Chunhua Town, while Zhang Lin Shaozhang and Junior Western King Xiao Youhe was killed at Hushu Town on the same day. On July 22, 1864, Li Xiucheng himself was captured alive near Square Mountain . On July 28, 1864, the overall commander of the battle, Zeng Guofan reached Nanking from Anqing and ordered Li to write his confession, and Li was executed after the completion on August 7, 1864. Only Zun King Lai Wenkwok succeeded in breaking out with his 3,000 cavalry to eventually join the and lead Nien Rebellion to fight for another four years.

The success of the Imperial Chinese Army was partially due to the advanced weaponry adopted, namely, the firearms. 1864 was the year when the first Chinese indigenously built bolt-action single-shot rifle appeared, and although the number was extremely few, they proved themselves over other firearms, and certainly over ancient weapons such as swords, sabres, spears and lances. The third battle of Nanking was a testing ground for the first modern Chinese firearms used in the battle.

Second rout the Army Group Jiangnan

Second route the Army GroupJiangnan ( or the Jiangnan DaYing; , The Qing government raised the Green Standard Army to fight against the Taiping Rebellion,but Qing twice military Strategy surrounded the Nanjing all lose at last.

Second Jiangnan DaYing

Time

1858--1860; Main battle happened on March 1860--July 1860, it extend to occupy whole the Zhejiang province by Taiping till October 1861.

Headquarter

Leaders

Imperial Inspector Minister：First Class Senior General Her Chyun

Viceroy of Liangjiang：He Guiqing

Military commander：Second Class Senior General Zhang GuoLiang

Governor of Zhejiang province 1st Luo Zundian forced suicide

Governor of Zhejiang province 2nd Wang Youling forced suicide

Governor of Jiangsu province Xu Youren

Lieutenant General：Zhang YuLiang

Lieutenant General：Zhou Tengso

Lieutenant General：Wang Jung

Upstair list of officials all dead in Second rout the Army Group Jiangnan.

Taiping Generals

Li Xiucheng, Lai Wenkwok, Tong Zonghai, Chen Yucheng, Yang Fuqing, Li Shixian, Liu Qeuling

Strength

180,000 regular Army V.S. 560,000 Taiping Rebellion militia force at least

Outcome

Taiping Rebellion forces occupied Jiangsu in 1860, next year, they continued occupied Zhejiang. Then Second Opium War and Xianfeng Emperor dead in 1861. Till the Xiang Army and Huai Army instead the Green Standard Army in 1862 and they raised third times to surround the Nanjing till finished this 14 years civil war in july 1864.

Commentary

Near million Green Standard Army stationary in northern China defend UK and troops increased the Jiangnan DaYing less strength and money pay salary to soldiers, it was the first and important loss reason;

The second reason of loss was leaders intrigue against each other：Xiang Rong　and Her Chyun in the first Jiangnan DaYing;Her Chyun‘group, He Guiqing‘group and Zeng Guofan‘group dispute inner officials system, that give many stronger growth to the forces of Taiping Rebellion.

Of course that Her Chyun was able to Brigadier General‘s works but he led whole Jiangnan DaYing and belittle the Taiping Rebellion, He Guiqing‘s coward,Zeng Guofan‘ too selfish etc. were third loss reason.

Panay incident

The Panay'' incident was a Japanese attack on the United States Navy gunboat while she was anchored in the Yangtze River outside of Nanjing on December 12, 1937.

Japan and the United States were not at war at the time. The Japanese claimed that they did not see the United States flags painted on the deck of the gunboat, apologized, and paid an indemnity. Nevertheless, the attack and the subsequent Allison incident in Nanjing caused U.S. opinion to turn against the Japanese.

Incident

A flat-bottomed craft built in Shanghai specifically for river duty, ''Panay'' served as part of the U.S. Navy's Yangtze Patrol in the Asiatic Fleet, which was responsible for patrolling the Yangtze River to protect American lives and property.

After invading China in the summer of 1937, Japanese forces moved in on the city of Nanking in December. ''Panay'' evacuated the remaining Americans from the city on December 11, bringing the number of people aboard to five officers, fifty-four enlisted men, four U.S. embassy staff, and ten civilians.

The following day, while upstream from Nanking, ''Panay'' and three Standard Oil s, ''Mei Ping'', ''Mei An'', and ''Mei Hsia'', came under attack from Japanese naval aircraft. ''Panay'' was hit by two of the eighteen 60-kg bombs dropped by three Yokosuka B4Y Type-96 bombers and strafed by nine Nakajima A4N Type-95 fighters. The ''Panay'' sank; three men were killed, and forty-three sailors and five civilians were wounded.

Two newsreel cameraman were aboard during the attack , and were able to film part of the attack and, after making the shore, the sinking of the ship in the middle of the river. Survivors were later taken on board the American vessel and the and . Earlier the same day, a Japanese shore battery had fired on HMS ''Ladybird''.

Diplomacy

It was a nervous time for the American to Japan, Joseph C. Grew, who feared the ''Panay'' incident might lead to a break in diplomatic ties between Japan and the United States. Grew, whose experience in the foreign service spanned over thirty years, "," the U.S. Navy ship that blew up in Havana Harbor in 1898. The sinking of the ''Maine'' had propelled the United States into the Spanish-American War. Grew hoped the sinking of the ''Panay'' would not be a similar catalyst.

The Japanese government took full responsibility for sinking the ''Panay'', but continued to maintain that the attack had been unintentional. The formal apology reached Washington on Christmas Eve.

Although Japanese officials maintained that their pilots never saw any American flags on the ''Panay'', a U.S. Navy court of inquiry determined that several U.S. flags were clearly visible on the vessel during the attacks. Four days before the apology reached Washington, the Japanese government admitted that the Japanese Army had the ''Panay'' and the survivors after the navy airplanes had bombed it. The Japanese government paid an indemnity of $2,214,007.36 to the United States on April 22, 1938, officially settling the ''Panay'' incident.

But, US Navy cryptographers had intercepted and decrypted traffic relating to the attacking planes which clearly indicated that they were under orders during the attack, and that it had not been a mistake of any kind. This was not released for the obvious secrecy reasons.

Post-incident

Immediately after the ''Panay'' bombing, a lesser known aspect of the story started to unfold. In the days following the ''Panay'' incident, Japanese citizens began sending letters and cards of sympathy to the American embassy in Tokyo. Ambassador Grew wrote that "never before has the fact that there are 'two Japans' been more clearly emphasized. Ever since the first news of the ''Panay'' disaster came, we have been deluged by delegations, visitors, letters, and contributions of money — people from all walks of life, from high officials, doctors, professors, businessmen down to school children, trying to express their shame, apologies, and regrets for the action of their own Navy." In addition, "highly placed women, the wives of officials, have called on Alice without the knowledge of their husbands." The ambassador noted, "that side of the incident, at least, is profoundly touching and shows that at heart the Japanese are still a chivalrous people." These signs of sympathy were expressed as the ambassador was receiving word of possible atrocities being committed by Japanese forces in China.

While most letters of sympathy were sent to the embassy in Tokyo, a few were sent to the Navy Department in Washington, D.C. One noteworthy group of letters received by the navy was from thirty-seven Japanese girls attending in Tokyo. The letters, each written in English and dated December 24, 1937, extended their apologies for the sinking of the ''Panay''. By coincidence, the girls' letters are dated the same day the Japanese government's formal apology reached Washington. The letters are very similar in content. The typical letter reads, "Dear Friend! This is a short letter, but we want to tell you how sorry we are for the mistake our airplane made. We want you to forgive us I am little and do not understand very well, but I know they did not mean it. I feel so sorry for those who were hurt and killed. I am studying here at St. Margarets school which was built by many American friends. I am studying English. But I am only thirteen and cannot write very well. All my school-mates are sorry like myself and wish you to forgive our country. To-morrow is X-Mas, May it be merry, I hope the time will come when everybody can be friends. I wish you a Happy New Year. Good-bye."

Some of the girls enclosed postcards of beautiful Japanese places and scenes, while others sent Christmas cards and holiday wishes. One girl included a drawing of a Christmas candle burning bright with holly at the bottom. Several of the girls included their ages, which ranged from around eight to thirteen. Many of the letters are written on intricately decorated stationery. Each envelope bears the identical address: "To the Family of the 'Paney' C/O U.S.A. Navy Department, Washington, DC U.S.A." While each letter seems to be penned individually, the envelopes appear to have been addressed by the same person, possibly their teacher.

Three months later, a naval officer sent a reply to the principal of St. Margaret's School, thanking the girls for the cards and letters. The officer noted, "The kind thoughts of the little girls are appreciated, and it is requested that you inform them of this acknowledgement." Although the girls' letters were addressed to the families of the ''Panay'' victims, it does not appear that they made it any further than the Navy Department.

Other letters from Japanese individuals and organizations contained gifts of money along with expressions of regret. These donations caused a problem for the Navy Department. One letter from ten Japanese men expressed their sympathy over the ''Panay'' incident and included a check for $87.19. The men claimed to be retired U.S. Navy sailors living in Yokohama, and the letter, written by Kankichi Hashimoto, stated that "this little monetary gift is the instrument through which we hope to be able to further convey our sympathy with the bereaved families of the members of the Panay." The navy returned the check but informed the gentlemen that the U.S. ambassador in Tokyo had received a number of similar letters and gifts and that a committee was being formed in Japan to accept such donations. The donors were almost back to square one. They had originally approached the American consulate in Yokohama to donate three hundred yen. The consular staff said that they could not accept the contribution and suggested donating the money to the Japanese government. The former sailors turned down this suggestion and chose instead to send their donation to the Navy Department in Washington.

After being turned down by the navy, Mr. Hashimoto approached the U.S. naval attaché at the American embassy in Tokyo with a check for three hundred yen. The attaché, Capt. Harold Bemis, informed Ambassador Grew that a Mr. K. Hashimoto had brought in a contribution from the Ex-U.S. Navy Enlisted Men's Association of Yokohama. Bemis further told the ambassador that Hashimoto requested that the names of the former sailors be withheld from the Japanese authorities and public. The donor feared that his group's motives might be misconstrued because of their connection with the U.S. Navy but had no objection to their names being published in the United States.

Continued overtures

Letters and cards of sympathy and apology continued to pour into the American embassy in Tokyo. Meanwhile, the increasing number of donations from several sources had the State Department scrambling to come up with a policy on how to handle the monetary gifts. Four days after the sinking of the ''Panay'', Grew sent a telegram to Secretary of State Cordell Hull, presenting the problem and requesting advice. With cash donations coming into the embassy by mail and in person, the contributions were creating what the ambassador described as "a delicate problem." As Grew explained to Hull, "Cash donations to Americans in the disaster are being brought in or sent to the embassy and we hear that the newspapers and various Government departments are receiving donations for transmission to us." While the ambassador attempted to turn away many of the donors, he explained to the secretary of state, "On the other hand the donations are all of trivial amounts so that sentiment is chiefly involved in the problem and to return the donations might give rise to a misunderstanding of our attitude."

Grew was concerned that accepting any money from the Japanese people might interfere with the official indemnity the Japanese government had already agreed to pay. Expressing his concern to Hull, he wrote, "We realize that the acceptance of the donations for the purpose for which they are offered might prejudice the principle of indemnification for which the Japanese Government has assumed liability." The ambassador was in a difficult position: accepting the money posed one set of problems, while refusing the contributions posed another. Grew did not wish to offend the contributors, explaining that "logical grounds for refusal are difficult to explain to people who know of no other way to express their regrets over the disaster." One suggestion offered in Grew's telegram was to accept the donations and give the money to the American Red Cross for relieving Americans in China. The ambassador ended the telegram by requesting the State Department's guidance on the matter as soon as possible.

The Navy Department also dispatched a telegram to the State Department to inform them that the Japanese junior aide navy minister had presented the naval attaché in Tokyo with ?650.11 that had been donated by several organizations and individuals. The Navy Department also included part of a dispatch from the naval attaché in which he informed them that "as this is but one of many popular expressions of public sympathy and concern manifested during past three days and furthermore is a Japanese custom which if not accepted by our government might lead to misunderstanding, it is recommended that same be accepted in the spirit in which offered." Similarly Adm. Harry Yarnell, commander of the U.S. Navy's Asiatic Fleet, was also offered a large sum of money by personnel of the Japanese Third Fleet but declined the offer.

In a telegram of December 18, Secretary of State Hull replied to Grew, "In view of the apparent sincerity of feeling in which the donations are being proffered and of the likelihood that a flat rejection of such offers would produce some misunderstanding of our general attitude and offend those Japanese who make such a gesture, the Department is of the opinion that some method should be found whereby Japanese who wish to give that type of expression to their feelings may do so."

One of the problems posed by the contributions involved the difficulty of the U.S. government accepting money. Hull explained that "the Department feels, however, that neither the American Government nor any agency of it nor any of its nationals should receive sums of money thus offered or take direct benefit therefrom." Hull suggested that Grew approach Prince Tokugawa Iesato or another Japanese gentleman, "inquiring whether he would be willing to constitute himself an authorized recipient for any gifts which any Japanese may wish voluntarily to offer in evidence of their feeling, public announcement to be made of such arrangement and an accompanying announcement that funds thus contributed will be devoted to something in Japan that will testify to good will between the two countries but not be conveyed to the American Government or American nationals."

America-Japan Society

Prince Tokugawa was president of the America-Japan Society, which had been formed in 1917 to promote a better relationship and understanding between the people of Japan and the United States. The society was formed in Tokyo and included prominent leaders from various fields; Viscount Kaneko Kentaro was elected as the first president, and U.S. Ambassador Roland Sletor Morris served as the first honorary president.

State Department's position

From the beginning, the State Department's position was that none of the families of those killed or the sailors or civilians wounded would receive any of the contributions. Nor would any office or department of the federal government accept the money. The State Department also expressed the desire that any necessary arrangements be made promptly. Hull did not wish to keep the Japanese people waiting for a decision on what was to become of the money they donated. A prolonged delay could lead to misunderstanding, especially if a decision was reached months later to return the money to the donors.

The State Department telegram of December 18 also set forth, at least for the time being, that only the American ambassador in Japan and the could accept donations related to the Panay incident. Several American consulates were receiving money, including consulates at Nagoya, Kobe, , and Osaka, in Japan; Taipei, Taiwan; Keijo , Korea; Dairen, Manchuria; and , Brazil. These contributions were eventually forwarded to the ambassador in Tokyo. Grew kept all money received related to the ''Panay'' incident in the embassy safe until the State Department could find a solution.

The American consulate in Nagasaki forwarded several contributions and translations of letters to the embassy in Tokyo, including fifty yen from a Mr. Ichiro Murakami, identified as a former U.S. Navy pensioner, and another individual who wished to remain anonymous.

Other letters

In a letter two days later, the consulate in Nagasaki also reported to Grew that on December 21 a small boy from the Shin Kozen Primary School brought in a letter and donation of two yen to the consulate and was accompanied by his older brother. The consul enclosed the contribution and both the original and translation of the boy's letter. The letter reads, "The cold has come. Having heard from my elder brother that the American warship has sunk the other day I feel very sorry. Having been committed without intention beyond doubt, I apologize on behalf of the soldiers. Please forgive. Here is the money I saved. Please hand it to the American sailors injured." The letter, addressed "To the American sailors," was signed only, "One of the pupils of the Shin Kozen." The boy did not provide his name in the letter, nor did he reveal it when visiting the consulate.

A local newspaper, the '''', published the story of Mr. Murakami's donation and that of the schoolboy and included an excerpt of the boy's letter. Arthur F. Tower, the American consul in Nagasaki, informed Ambassador Grew of the article, which had been published on January 7. Tower also informed Grew that a reporter of another newspaper, the Tokyo and Osaka Asahi Shimbun had called on him on December 23 to discuss the Panay contributions. Towers reassured Grew that "this consulate has not sought to give publicity to the donations received or offered and has furnished information concerning them on two occasions only, when requested."

Pensioners

Although the consul in Nagasaki was not trying to publicize the donations, the newspaper stories may have increased contributions at his consulate. On January 8 a Japanese pensioner of the U.S. Navy called in person to make a contribution of five yen for the relief of those involved in the ''Panay'' incident. When his contribution was accepted, the former sailor informed the consul that a group of other U.S. pensioners also wished to donate money. On January 10 he visited the consulate again, this time with two representatives of Japanese pensioners of the U.S. Navy who lived in the area. By this time, however, the Nagasaki consulate had received the consulate general's supervisory circular informing them that all ''Panay''-related contributions were to be made either to the ambassador in China or the ambassador in Japan. The gentlemen attempted to donate money but were informed that the consul could no longer receive contributions, and the men were asked to communicate directly with the American embassy in Tokyo. Soon after the departure of the former U.S. sailors, two Japanese men arrived at the consulate. These gentlemen, representing the Buddhist Association of Nagasaki, also had come to donate money for victims of the ''Panay'' and were likewise turned away.

Responsibility for the attack

Modern historians have gone back and analyzed the attack. Many now believe that the attack may have been intentional. According to John Prados, Navy cryptographers had intercepted and decrypted traffic relating to the attacking planes which clearly indicated that they were under orders during the attack, and that it had not been a mistake of any kind. Writer Nick Sparks believes that the chaos in Nanking created an opportunity for renegade factions within the Japanese army who wanted to force the United States into an active conflict so that the Japanese could once and for all drive the United States out of China. Considering the attack on Pearl Harbor 4 years later, it is not unlikely that the same hard-line factions in control in 1941 were wishing to provoke a war as early as 1937.

Trivia

The episode has been cited by Philip K. Dick in his novel ''The Man in the High Castle'', depicted in a collectible picture-card of the 40's, in the series ''Horrors of War'' with the title "The sinking of the Panay". The incident also features in the novel by the British writer Douglas Galbraith. It is also described in the historical fiction novel ''Pearl Harbor'' by Newt Gingrich and William R. Forstchen.